Classical Leadership Theories: A Closer Look, Explained

UPI Study › Courses › Business Essentials › Free lessons › Lesson 6.2 Free with a free account

Classical Leadership Theories: A Closer Look

Business Essentials · Chapter 6: Leadership Theories and StylesSection 6.2 · lesson 32 of 10513 min · free with a free account

← Understanding Leadership OrientationsNext lesson: The Rise of Modern Leadership Theories →

Earn 3 college credits for Business EssentialsRecommended for credit by NCCRS · Business 100 · self-paced · one payment, lifetime access
Enroll in Business Essentials · $250 →Download the syllabus (PDF)

In this lesson

From who leaders are, to what they do, to when it works.

  • Describe the trait approach and its findings
  • Explain Fiedler's contingency model
  • Apply the situational model and path-goal theory
  • Explain why the field moved from traits to situations

Free study notes

Get this lesson's notes by email

The key points and 4 practice questions with answers, in your inbox. One email, free.

One email. Unsubscribe in one click.

Transcript

Everything said in the video, section by section (1,906 words). Read along, or search it.

Leadership Theories and Styles

Classical Leadership Theories: A Closer Look

Why did leadership research change its question three times? This section answers that, by tracing a sequence of theories, each built on the failure of the one before. We'll start with the search for leadership traits, and what it really found. Then we'll work through three contingency theories, the ideas that leadership depends on the situation. They are Fiedler's model, the situational model of Hersey and Blanchard, and path-goal theory. We'll compare them on a single case, and finish with what these classical theories leave out. Each theory answers a question the previous one couldn't. And each comes with evidence that deserves to be stated honestly, whether it's strong or weak.

An Intellectual Sequence

Each Stage Answered the Last One's Failure

These theories are best understood as a sequence. Each stage was a response to the failure of the one before. Researchers first asked who leaders are. They searched for the personal characteristics that distinguish leaders from everyone else. When those characteristics proved disappointing as an explanation, the question changed. What do leaders do? That produced the behavioral dimensions and styles of section six point one. But no single pattern of behavior proved best everywhere. So the question changed again. When does a given behavior work? The answer was the contingency theories. They hold that a leader's effectiveness depends on the fit between the leader and the situation. Traits, then behaviors, then situations. Hold on to that sequence. It organizes everything in this section.

The Trait Approach

Who Emerges Is Not Who Is Effective

The trait approach is the search for stable personal characteristics that distinguish leaders from non-leaders. A trait is an enduring feature of a person's disposition, such as intelligence, sociability, or persistence. The early research reviewed many studies, and concluded that no consistent set of traits separated leaders from others across situations. Some traits appeared in some studies and not in others. And the differences between leaders and followers were small, compared with the variation within each group. The approach was widely regarded as having failed. A later reconsideration qualified that verdict. Reviews combining many studies, with better measurement of personality, found modest but consistent associations. They linked leadership to intelligence, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and self-confidence. The associations were described as small to moderate. Now an important distinction. These traits better predict who emerges as a leader than who is effective. Emerging means being seen as a leader by others. Being effective means your group actually performs well. Someone may be regarded as a leader, and still lead badly. And remember, these are tendencies across large samples. They can't be used to judge any individual, and say nothing about the capability of any group of people.

Fiedler (1 of 2)

Match the Leader, Don't Change Her

The trait account also has a structural limit. Even where traits are linked to leadership, they say nothing about what a leader should do. So researchers turned to behavior, and then to situations. The first major contingency theory was Fiedler's model. Its premise is distinctive. A leader's orientation is relatively fixed, a stable part of personality that can't easily be changed. So effectiveness comes from matching the leader to the situation, not from asking the leader to change style. Orientation is measured by the least preferred co-worker scale. The leader describes the person they have found it hardest to work with. A leader who describes that person in relatively favorable terms is classified as relationship-oriented. One who describes that person harshly is classified as task-oriented. The model has a criticism that must be stated. The scale is a puzzling measure. It's unclear what it actually captures, its results aren't always stable, and the predictions are supported in some studies and not in others.

Fiedler (2 of 2)

How Favorable Is the Situation?

Fiedler classifies situations by their favorability, meaning how much control the situation gives the leader. Three variables decide it. Leader-member relations are the trust and respect between leader and group, and they're good or poor. Task structure is how clear the task is, with defined steps and measurable results. It's structured or unstructured. Position power is the leader's formal authority to reward and punish, and it's strong or weak. Combining the three gives eight situations, from very favorable to very unfavorable. The prediction is that task-oriented leaders perform best at the two extremes. There, control is either very high or very low, and clear direction is what the group needs. Relationship-oriented leaders perform best in the middle, where the situation is moderately favorable, and cooperation needs to be built. Whatever the doubts about measurement, the practical implication is distinctive. Either place a manager in a situation that suits her orientation, or change the situation to suit her, by adjusting the task or her authority.

Hersey And Blanchard

The Situational Model

The situational model of Hersey and Blanchard begins from the opposite premise. The leader can, and should, change style to fit the situation. And the situation that matters is the follower's readiness for a particular task. Readiness combines ability, meaning the knowledge and skill to do the task, with willingness, meaning the confidence and commitment to do it. The model has four levels. At the first level, the follower is unable, and either unwilling or insecure. At the second, the follower is unable, but willing or confident. At the third, the follower is able, but unwilling or insecure. And at the fourth, the follower is both able and willing. Notice the third level. Skill without confidence is a real state, and it calls for something other than instructions.

Figure 6.2.1

4 Styles Matched to Readiness

Each readiness level is matched to a style, defined by how much task and relationship behavior the leader shows. Telling is high on task and low on relationship. It gives clear, close direction to the first level. Selling is high on both. It explains decisions and encourages the second level, who are willing but need direction. Participating is low on task and high on relationship. It shares decisions with the third level, who can do the work but need confidence and involvement. Delegating is low on both. It turns responsibility over to the fourth level. So as readiness grows, direction and support are withdrawn, as each stops being needed. A significant feature is that readiness is task-specific. The same person may be at the fourth level for one part of a job, and the first for another. Now, the evidence, characterized honestly. The model is very widely used in management training, and it's intuitive and easy to remember. But research support for its specific predictions has been weak, its constructs aren't always clearly defined, and rigorous tests are few. Use it as a prompt for thought, not as an empirically established law.

Path-Goal Theory

Clear the Path, Don't Duplicate It

Path-goal theory defines the leader's job differently. The leader clarifies the path by which followers can reach goals they value, and removes obstacles on it. That makes the link between effort and reward visible, and easier to follow. The theory identifies four leader behaviors. Directive behavior gives specific guidance, schedules, and rules. Supportive behavior shows concern for followers' well-being and needs. Participative behavior consults followers and takes their views into account. Achievement-oriented behavior sets challenging goals, and expresses confidence that followers can meet them. Which one helps depends on two groups of factors. Follower characteristics, like ability and preference for structure. And features of the environment, like the task's structure, the formal authority system, and the work group. The theory's distinctive prediction is the redundancy principle. Leader behavior that duplicates what the situation already supplies adds nothing, and may irritate. Directive behavior helps when the task is ambiguous and followers are unsure. With a clear task and experienced followers, it becomes an irritant. This principle comes back in section six point four, as substitutes for leadership.

Table 6.2.1

3 Contingency Theories Compared

Set side by side, the three theories differ on three questions. Can the leader change? Fiedler says orientation is relatively fixed. Hersey and Blanchard say the leader can and should change style. Path-goal theory says the leader can use several behaviors as needed. What feature of the situation matters? For Fiedler, favorability. For the situational model, follower readiness for the specific task. For path-goal theory, follower characteristics, and features of the task and environment. And so, what should a manager do? Fiedler says match the leader to the situation, or change the situation. The situational model says diagnose readiness for each task, and change style as readiness changes. Path-goal theory says clarify the path, remove obstacles, and don't supply what the situation already provides. Once you see the premise under each theory, you can see why theories that seem to conflict may each be useful, for a different question.

Comparing The Theories

A New Supervisor Nobody Trusts

A single situation shows how differently the three theories reason. A newly appointed supervisor takes over a team that distrusts her. The work has no clear procedure, and she has little power to reward or discipline. For Fiedler, this is very unfavorable. Poor relations, an unstructured task, and weak power. So a task-oriented leader should do best, and a relationship-oriented leader would be better placed elsewhere. The situational model asks instead about the team's readiness for this specific task. If they're able but insecure about a novel task, participating is indicated. If they're unable and unsure, telling. Path-goal theory asks what's missing on the path. The task is unstructured, so directive behavior that supplies clarity is likely to help. And supportive behavior may help build the trust that's lacking. The three don't always agree, and their disagreement is informative. The first treats the situation as the variable, the second treats the follower as the variable, and the third treats the path as the variable.

Taking Stock

What the Classical Theories Settled, and Where They Stop

So what did these classical theories, together with section six point one, establish? That leadership effectiveness can't be explained by traits alone. That behavior falls into two independent dimensions. And that no single style is best everywhere. They also gave managers a set of questions. What does the follower need? How structured is the task? What does the situation already provide? Their limits are just as clear. Most rest on modest or mixed empirical support. Most treat the leader as acting on followers, and give little place to the followers' own part in leadership. And they say little about how a leader can inspire commitment beyond an exchange. Those gaps are taken up by the modern theories of section six point three.

Case Vignette (Composite)

1 Style for 2 Tasks

Here's a composite case, built for instruction, where one style meets two tasks. Kofi leads a team in an accounting practice, and he's settled on a single style. He trusts his people, and gives them room. Marta has prepared tax returns for six years. She's fast, accurate, and confident. He gives her the returns and leaves her to it, and the results are excellent. Three months ago, Marta was asked to take on the practice's new payroll software, with no experience. He gives her the same freedom. Her payroll work is slow and full of errors. And she doesn't ask for help, partly because she's used to being trusted. Her readiness isn't a property of Marta. It's a property of Marta for a specific task. For tax returns, she's at the fourth level. For payroll, she's at the first or second, willing but unable. Kofi applied delegating to a task where she needed telling, or selling. The trade-off was between the respect his usual style expressed and the direction a novice needs. The constraint was that Marta was reluctant to admit she was lost. Once the errors surface, Kofi diagnoses readiness by task. He gives clear instructions and close checks on payroll, keeps delegating the tax returns, and expects to withdraw the direction as her skill grows.

About Business Essentials at UPI Study

Business Essentials (Business 100) is a self-paced online course of 105 video lessons in 24 chapters, from the business environment, economics and global markets to ownership, management, leadership, operations, people, marketing, accounting, finance and banking. It carries a NCCRS credit recommendation for 3 semester credits.

Every lesson transcript is free on pages like this one, and the videos are free with a free UPI Study account. Enrolling adds a practice quiz after each lesson, the graded work and final exam that earn the credit, lifetime access, and an official transcript on completion. UPI Study has helped over 130,000 students with college credits. ACE and NCCRS have over 2,100 cooperating colleges that will consider accepting credits; the final decision is with the universities.

Enroll now → Course details Download the syllabus All Business courses Every course with PRO →

Compare: Business Essentials vs Principles of Management

Why take it here

Why students take Business Essentials with UPI Study

How a business works, end to endBusiness Essentials is a survey of how companies work: economic systems, global trade, forms of ownership, management and leadership, operations, human resources, marketing, accounting, finance and the banking system. It is a common first course in business, management and accounting degrees.
Credit at a fraction of the priceThe same 3 credits can cost $750 or more at a US college. Here it is one payment, self-paced, with lifetime access.
Finish your degree soonerTransfer credits reduce the courses you still owe, so you can graduate earlier or lighten a heavy semester.
Strengthen an applicationA completed college-level course on an official transcript shows admissions and scholarship committees you can do the work.
Study on your own scheduleNo start dates, no deadlines. Watch the lessons, practice, and take the final when you are ready.
130,000+students helped with college creditsACE and NCCRS have over 2,100 cooperating colleges that will consider accepting credits; the final decision is with the universities.

Where the credit goes

Universities that work with NCCRS

Business Essentials carries a NCCRS credit recommendation. These universities work with NCCRS; some are UPI Study's signed partners. ACE and NCCRS have over 2,100 cooperating colleges that will consider accepting credits; the final decision is with the universities.

Thomas Edison State UniversityThomas Edison State UniversitySigned partnerUniversity of the PeopleUniversity of the PeopleSigned partnerCharter Oak State CollegeCharter Oak State CollegeSigned partnerStrayer UniversityStrayer UniversitySigned partnerColumbia Southern UniversityColumbia Southern UniversitySigned partnerIndiana TechIndiana TechSigned partnerPenn StatePenn StateWorks with NCCRSSouthern New Hampshire UniversitySouthern New Hampshire UniversityWorks with NCCRSSUNYSUNYWorks with NCCRS +many more cooperating universitiesFind my college →

Find my college → Not listed? Ask Athena in the corner of this page, or book a 15-minute call.

FAQ

Questions students ask us

About Classical Leadership Theories: A Closer Look

What is the trait theory of leadership?
Trait theory searches for stable personal characteristics that distinguish leaders from non-leaders. Early reviews found no consistent set of traits across situations, and the approach was widely seen as failing. Later reviews with better personality measures found modest, consistent links with intelligence, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and self-confidence. These traits predict who emerges as a leader better than who leads effectively, and they can't be used to judge any individual.
What is Fiedler's contingency model of leadership?
Fred Fiedler's contingency model holds that a leader's orientation is relatively fixed, so effectiveness comes from matching the leader to the situation. Orientation is measured with the least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale. Situations vary in favorability according to leader-member relations, task structure, and position power. Task-oriented leaders are predicted to do best in very favorable or very unfavorable situations, relationship-oriented leaders in moderately favorable ones. The LPC scale's meaning and stability are disputed.
What is the Hersey and Blanchard situational leadership model?
The Hersey-Blanchard situational model says leaders should adjust their style to a follower's readiness for a specific task, combining ability and willingness. The four styles are telling (high task, low relationship), selling (high on both), participating (low task, high relationship), and delegating (low on both), matched to readiness levels one through four. The model is widely used in management training, but research support for its specific predictions has been weak.
What is path-goal theory of leadership?
Path-goal theory, developed by Robert House, says a leader's job is to clarify the path to goals followers value and remove obstacles along it. It names four behaviors: directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented. Which helps depends on follower characteristics and the work environment. Its redundancy principle predicts that leader behavior duplicating what the situation already supplies adds nothing, so directive behavior helps with ambiguous tasks but irritates experienced people doing clear ones.

About the Business Essentials course

How many college credits is Business Essentials?
Business Essentials (Business 100) carries a NCCRS credit recommendation for 3 semester credits. ACE and NCCRS have over 2,100 cooperating colleges that will consider accepting credits; the final decision is with the universities.
How much does Business Essentials cost and what is included?
$250, paid once, with lifetime access: all 105 video lessons, a practice quiz after each, the graded work and final exam, and an official transcript when you finish. Students who want several courses choose UPI Study PRO instead.
Which universities accept UPI Study credits?
UPI Study has signed partner agreements with universities such as Thomas Edison State University, University of the People and Charter Oak State College, and works with universities such as Penn State, SNHU and SUNY. ACE and NCCRS have over 2,100 cooperating colleges that will consider accepting credits; the final decision is with the universities. Use "Find my college" on this page to check yours.
How long does Business Essentials take?
It is self-paced with no deadlines. The 105 lessons total about 24 hours of video; most students add reading and practice time and finish in a few weeks to a few months, on their own schedule.
How are the exams done?
Quizzes and assignments are online in the course. The final exam is taken online with proctoring; a person on the UPI Study team checks assignments, usually within two days.
How do my credits reach my college?
When the course shows 100% complete, request the official transcript from your dashboard. It is sent to the college you name, and you can send it to more than one. Check your college first with "Find my college" on this page, or ask Athena.

Ready for the full course? Earn 3 credits in Business Essentials.

105 video lessons, a quiz after each one, and the graded work that earns the credit. Recommended for credit by NCCRS.

Enroll in Business Essentials →Download the syllabusEvery course with PRO →
Business Essentials
3 credits · NCCRSEnroll →