Formulating Research Questions and Hypotheses, Explained

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Formulating Research Questions and Hypotheses

Research Methods in Psychology · Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodological PlanningSection 3.2 · lesson 17 of 9411 min · free with a free account

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In this lesson

Translating ideas into precise, testable scientific predictions.

  • Separate a research problem, question and hypothesis
  • Name the five marks of a good research question
  • State null and alternative hypotheses correctly
  • Choose between directional and non-directional predictions

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Transcript

Everything said in the video, section by section (1,426 words). Read along, or search it.

Research Design and Methodological Planning

Research Questions and Hypotheses

Research begins with curiosity, but curiosity is not yet a question. This section is about the gap between the two, and how to close it. Turning a broad interest into something a study can answer is demanding work. It is also the work that determines whether the study is worth running. By the end, you will separate a research problem, a question, and a hypothesis. You will know the five marks of a well-formulated question. You will state a null and an alternative hypothesis correctly. And you will choose between directional and non-directional predictions, on evidence.

From Curiosity

Curiosity Is Not Yet a Question

Start with where research actually begins. Somebody notices that something about human behavior is not fully understood. But curiosity on its own does not constitute a research question. The transformation into a precise, answerable question is intellectually demanding. It is also the most consequential thing you will do all study. Because a well-formulated question drives every decision that follows. The choice of method, the selection of measures, the composition of the sample. And the type of analysis you will eventually be able to run. There are two ways to get the scope wrong, and they fail differently. Does stress affect health? That is too broad to operationalize or test. A question that is too narrow may be perfectly answerable, and completely trivial. The skill lies in finding the precise middle ground between those two failures.

The Progression

From Problem to Hypothesis

The research problem is the broad area of concern. Stress and academic performance are related in university students, for example. That is broad, general, and not directly testable as it stands. The research topic is more focused, but still requires further specification. The effect of exam stress on cognitive function in undergraduates. The research question is specific and answerable, and it names variables and a population. Does perceived exam stress predict working memory performance in first-year psychology students? The hypothesis goes one step further, and predicts an outcome. Students reporting higher exam stress will perform worse on the N-back working memory task. Testable, falsifiable, directional, and operationalized. Each level throws something away, and what survives is what a single study can test.

What Makes It Good

Five Marks of a Research Question

Not every interesting question can be investigated empirically. A well-formulated question in psychology satisfies five criteria. First, it is focused. It specifies the key variables, the population, and the context. Vague questions lead to vague studies, reliably. Second, it is feasible, given the participants, measures, equipment, time and funding you have. Third, it is significant. It addresses a gap in knowledge, resolves a theoretical inconsistency, or has practical implications. Something has to justify the investment of research effort. Fourth, it is empirically answerable through systematic observation or measurement. Questions about values or metaphysics fall outside the scope of empirical research. Fifth, it is ethical, which is a separate test that a scientifically interesting question can still fail.

Five Kinds

Types of Research Questions

Research questions come in recognizable types. A descriptive question asks about prevalence, frequency, or characteristics. How common is social anxiety among Indian university students? A comparative question compares two or more groups on a variable of interest. Do men and women differ in their reported use of emotion regulation strategies? A relational question examines whether and how variables are related. Is sleep quality associated with academic achievement in adolescents? A causal question investigates whether one variable causes changes in another. Does mindfulness training reduce symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder? And an explanatory question explores the mechanisms underneath an observed relationship. Why does exercise improve mood, and through what psychological and physiological pathways?

Question to Prediction

What a Hypothesis Is

Now move from asking to predicting. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction derived from theory or prior research. It translates the question into a statement about an expected relationship between variables. A statement that data can confirm, or disconfirm. All good hypotheses share three properties. They are specific, they are testable, and they are falsifiable. Miss any one of the three, and the prediction cannot do scientific work. A research question asks. A hypothesis predicts. Will mindfulness reduce anxiety? That is a question. Participants in an eight week MBSR program will report significantly lower anxiety than waitlist controls. That is a hypothesis, because it commits to an outcome in advance.

Two Hypotheses

The Null and the Alternative

Statistical hypothesis testing needs two hypotheses, not one. They are complementary, and both have to be stated. The null hypothesis asserts that there is no relationship in the population. No difference between the variables, and any observed effect is due to chance. The alternative hypothesis asserts that a genuine relationship or difference does exist. Take a concrete pair. The null says there is no difference in working memory performance. Between students who practice mindfulness, and students who do not. The alternative says the mindfulness students will perform significantly better. Now here is the counter-intuitive part of the procedure. The test does not evaluate your prediction directly. It asks whether the data are sufficiently inconsistent with the null to justify rejecting it.

Direction

Directional and Non-Directional

Hypotheses also differ in whether they commit to a direction. A directional hypothesis, sometimes called one-tailed, specifies the expected direction of the effect. It predicts that Group A will score higher than Group B, for instance. A non-directional hypothesis, or two-tailed, predicts only that a difference exists. It stays silent about which way that difference runs. So which should you use? Go directional when prior theory or research gives strong grounds for predicting the direction. Go non-directional when the evidence is insufficient to justify that commitment. The choice is not a matter of style, and it is not a matter of preference. It is a claim about how much you already know before the study begins. Claiming a direction you cannot support is not confidence. It is overreach.

The Hard Standard

Falsifiability

One property outranks all the others. The philosopher Karl Popper argued that a claim is only scientific if it is falsifiable. That is, if there exists some conceivable observation that could prove it wrong. The requirement is not that the claim be wrong. The requirement is that being wrong has to be possible. A hypothesis that cannot in principle be refuted by any data is not a scientific hypothesis. It may still be interesting, and it may even be true. It is simply outside the reach of empirical testing. Falsifiability is what separates science from pseudoscience. It forces hypotheses into real contact with empirical reality. Without it, a theory quietly accommodates whatever the data happen to show.

Two Pairs

Falsifiable, and Not

Two pairs of claims make the distinction concrete. Here is a claim that cannot be falsified. People are unconsciously motivated by forces that can never be directly observed or measured. Ask yourself what result would count against it. There is none. A second one. Some people are simply destined to be anxious, and no intervention can change them. Any failed intervention confirms it, and any success gets explained away. Now a falsifiable version. An eight week CBT program will produce a significant reduction in GAD seven anxiety scores. Measured against a waitlist control, and a non-significant result would challenge it. Or this one. Participants primed with achievement-related words will solve significantly more anagrams. More than unprimed controls, within a fixed time limit. Testable, and refutable.

Five Traps

Common Formulation Errors

Even experienced researchers make the same handful of errors, and five are worth recognizing. The first is a question that is too broad. Does psychology affect behavior? That cannot be operationalized or tested. Narrow it to specific variables, populations, and contexts. The second is a question that is too narrow. One memory task, one very narrow group, on a particular day of the week. It may be perfectly testable, and still lack scientific significance. The third confuses a question with a hypothesis, and the two do different jobs. The fourth is a hypothesis nobody could disprove. Mindfulness somehow improves wellbeing in some way. That cannot be falsified. The fifth is circular. Anxious people will score higher on anxiety measures.

Putting It Together

The Bridge to Everything Else

Pull the section together into two checklists. A well-formulated research question is focused, and feasible, and significant. It is also empirically answerable, and ethical. A good hypothesis is specific, testable, and falsifiable. It distinguishes clearly between the null and the alternative prediction. Go directional only when theory gives you strong grounds for predicting the direction. These are not preliminaries you get through on the way to the interesting part. They are prerequisites for every later stage of the research process. A question fixed at the start costs you an afternoon. The same question fixed after data collection costs you the study. So spend the time here, before anything is measured. Get the question right, and every later decision has something to answer to.

About Research Methods in Psychology at UPI Study

Research Methods in Psychology (Psychology 111) is a self-paced online course of 94 video lessons in 16 chapters, from the scientific method and research ethics to designs, data collection, sampling, measurement, validity, experiments, descriptive statistics and hypothesis testing. It carries a NCCRS credit recommendation for 3 semester credits.

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How psychologists know what they knowResearch Methods in Psychology teaches how psychological studies are designed, run and judged: research ethics, surveys and observation, correlational and experimental designs, sampling, reliability and validity, and the statistics used to test hypotheses. It is a core course in psychology and many social-science degrees.
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Universities that work with NCCRS

Research Methods in Psychology carries a NCCRS credit recommendation. These universities work with NCCRS; some are UPI Study's signed partners. ACE and NCCRS have over 2,100 cooperating colleges that will consider accepting credits; the final decision is with the universities.

Thomas Edison State UniversityThomas Edison State UniversitySigned partnerUniversity of the PeopleUniversity of the PeopleSigned partnerCharter Oak State CollegeCharter Oak State CollegeSigned partnerStrayer UniversityStrayer UniversitySigned partnerColumbia Southern UniversityColumbia Southern UniversitySigned partnerIndiana TechIndiana TechSigned partnerPenn StatePenn StateWorks with NCCRSSouthern New Hampshire UniversitySouthern New Hampshire UniversityWorks with NCCRSSUNYSUNYWorks with NCCRS +many more cooperating universitiesFind my college →

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FAQ

Questions students ask us

About Formulating Research Questions and Hypotheses

What is the difference between a research question and a hypothesis?
A research question asks something, while a hypothesis predicts a specific outcome in advance. Will mindfulness reduce anxiety? is a question. Participants in an eight-week MBSR program will report significantly lower anxiety than waitlist controls is a hypothesis, because it commits to a testable result. A good hypothesis is specific, testable and falsifiable, and it is usually derived from theory or prior research.
What is the difference between the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis?
The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship or difference in the population, so any observed effect is due to chance; the alternative hypothesis states that a real relationship or difference exists. For example, the null says mindfulness and non-mindfulness students do not differ in working memory, while the alternative says they do. A statistical test asks whether the data are inconsistent enough with the null to reject it.
What is the difference between a directional and a non-directional hypothesis?
A directional hypothesis predicts which way an effect will go, such as Group A scoring higher than Group B, while a non-directional hypothesis predicts only that a difference exists. Directional hypotheses are also called one-tailed and non-directional ones two-tailed. Use a directional hypothesis only when theory or prior research gives strong grounds for the direction; otherwise, a non-directional hypothesis is the safer choice.
What makes a good research question in psychology?
A good research question is focused, feasible, significant, empirically answerable and ethical. It names the key variables, population and context, fits the time, funding and participants available, fills a real gap, can be answered through observation or measurement, and can be studied ethically. Does stress affect health? is too broad, whereas Does perceived exam stress predict working memory performance in first-year psychology students? is answerable.

About the Research Methods in Psychology course

How many college credits is Research Methods in Psychology?
Research Methods in Psychology (Psychology 111) carries a NCCRS credit recommendation for 3 semester credits. ACE and NCCRS have over 2,100 cooperating colleges that will consider accepting credits; the final decision is with the universities.
How much does Research Methods in Psychology cost and what is included?
$250, paid once, with lifetime access: all 94 video lessons, a practice quiz after each, the graded work and final exam, and an official transcript when you finish. Students who want several courses choose UPI Study PRO instead.
Which universities accept UPI Study credits?
UPI Study has signed partner agreements with universities such as Thomas Edison State University, University of the People and Charter Oak State College, and works with universities such as Penn State, SNHU and SUNY. ACE and NCCRS have over 2,100 cooperating colleges that will consider accepting credits; the final decision is with the universities. Use "Find my college" on this page to check yours.
How long does Research Methods in Psychology take?
It is self-paced with no deadlines. The 94 lessons total about 16 hours of video; most students add reading and practice time and finish in a few weeks to a few months, on their own schedule.
How are the exams done?
Quizzes and assignments are online in the course. The final exam is taken online with proctoring; a person on the UPI Study team checks assignments, usually within two days.
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