Survey Methods in Social Research, Explained

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Survey Methods in Social Research

Research Methods in Psychology · Chapter 4: Methods of Data CollectionSection 4.2 · lesson 25 of 9410 min · free with a free account

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In this lesson

Designing, delivering and analyzing the most widely used instrument in the social sciences.

  • Explain why surveys dominate social research
  • Distinguish cross-sectional, trend, cohort and panel designs
  • Compare online, telephone, face-to-face and mail modes
  • Name four sources of survey error and how to manage them

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Everything said in the video, section by section (1,399 words). Read along, or search it.

Methods of Data Collection

Survey Methods

The survey is the workhorse of social research. More studies use it than any other method, by a wide margin. That popularity has a hidden cost: because a survey looks easy to write, it often gets written carelessly. This section is about the difference between a strong survey and a weak one. By the end, you will explain why surveys dominate the field. You will distinguish cross-sectional, trend, cohort, and panel designs. You will compare online, telephone, face-to-face, and mail delivery. You will recognize the common pitfalls in question wording. And you will name four sources of survey error, and how each is managed.

Why Surveys Dominate

Cheap, Standardized, and Everywhere

Start with why the survey became the default choice. It is by some distance the most widely used data collection method in psychology. The same is true in sociology, political science, marketing, public health, and education. Surveys reach large numbers of people relatively cheaply. They yield standardized data, which lends itself directly to statistical analysis. And they suit the kinds of question social researchers most often ask. Attitudes, beliefs, behavior, and demographic characteristics within a defined population. Now the warning. The very features that make surveys attractive make them deceptively easy to do badly. Writing a question is simple. Writing one that all respondents understand the same way, and answer truthfully, is difficult.

Designs By Time

One Snapshot, or Many

Surveys are classified first by their time structure. A cross-sectional survey collects data from a sample at a single point in time. Most public-opinion polls work this way. So do attitude studies, and one-off market-research projects. They can be conducted quickly and inexpensively, giving you a snapshot of a population at a given moment. But a snapshot carries one hard limit. It cannot directly track change over time. A longitudinal survey collects data from a population on two or more occasions. That is the whole difference, and it changes which questions you can ask. Three sub-types of longitudinal design are common. Trend studies, cohort studies, and panel studies.

Three Longitudinal Forms

Trend, Cohort, Panel

The three longitudinal designs differ in who exactly gets surveyed each time. A trend study surveys different samples from the same population at different times. A national poll repeated yearly is the standard example. A cohort study follows a group that shares some characteristic. People born in nineteen ninety, for instance, followed across time. The individuals surveyed can differ from one wave to the next. A panel study follows the same individuals across repeated waves of measurement. A panel tracks change at the individual level, not just the population level. You can see who changed, not only that the average moved. The price is panel attrition, which means participants dropping out over time. Attrition can bias results, and cost and complexity grow with every extra wave.

Side By Side

How Designs Handle Time

Lay the four designs out together, and the trade-offs line up neatly. Cross-sectional uses one time point. It is quick and inexpensive, and it cannot track change. Trend uses different samples on repeated occasions. It tracks change at the population level, but cannot trace individuals. Cohort follows the same defined group, with different members at each wave. It tracks generational change, and its members differ across waves. Panel follows the same individuals, and tracks change inside each of them. Its costs are attrition, expense, and complexity. The British Household Panel Survey, and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Long-running panels are among the most valuable resources in social research.

Reaching Respondents

Four Delivery Modes

Once the design is settled, the next decision is how to reach respondents. Four major delivery modes dominate contemporary practice. Online, telephone, face-to-face, and mail. Each carries distinctive strengths and weaknesses. Delivery mode shapes who answers, how many answer, and how deep the data go. It also drives cost, and how long the whole study takes. Treat these four as a menu, not a ranking. The right mode depends on the population you are trying to reach. Many large studies now use more than one of them.

Screens And Calls

Online and Telephone

Online surveys go out by email link or web platform. In many fields they have become the dominant mode. They are inexpensive and fast, easy to deliver to dispersed respondents, and convenient for participants. Mobile-friendly design is now essential. A large share of respondents complete surveys on a phone. Telephone surveys use trained interviewers. Often with computer-assisted telephone interviewing systems, which manage call routing and data entry. The interviewer can clarify a confusing question on the spot. Telephone also reaches populations without internet access, and is still widely used in opinion polling. Online surveys suffer coverage bias, because people with limited internet access are underrepresented. And telephone response rates have declined sharply over the past two decades. Fewer and fewer people answer calls from unknown numbers.

In Person And Post

Face-to-Face and Mail

Face-to-face surveys put a trained interviewer in front of the respondent. At home, at a workplace, or in a public location. They produce the highest response rates and the deepest data. You can use visual aids, longer questionnaires, and complex skip patterns. They are also the most expensive mode, by a wide margin. And they need careful interviewer training, to minimize interviewer effects. Mail surveys are delivered in printed form through the postal system. They are inexpensive per respondent, allow considered responses, and reach populations other modes miss. The cost is slow turnaround, low response rates without follow-up, and limits on question complexity. Email invitations first, phone follow-up for non-responders, some interviews in person. That reduces coverage bias, and introduces a new problem called mode effects. The same question can produce different answers depending on how it was delivered.

Question Design

The Single Biggest Determinant

The single most important determinant of survey quality is the wording of the questions. A poorly designed question produces unreliable data, and no amount of good sampling, delivery, or analysis will repair it. So use plain language. Avoid jargon, technical terms, and unfamiliar vocabulary. Aim at the reading level of the group you are surveying. Be specific, because vague terms mean different things to different people. Often and recently are the classic offenders. Ask one thing at a time. A double-barreled question covers two issues at once, and the answer is ambiguous. Avoid leading wording, because phrasing that suggests a preferred answer biases responses. Match the answer scale to the question, and keep the response options balanced. Equal numbers of positive and negative options, around a clear midpoint. And order matters. Easy questions early, sensitive questions later.

Open Or Closed

Two Shapes of Question

Questions come in two basic shapes. Closed-ended questions offer fixed response options. Yes or no. Strongly disagree through strongly agree. They produce structured data that is quick to analyze, and quick to answer. Open-ended questions invite respondents to answer in their own words. They yield much richer data. The cost is qualitative coding, and longer response times for participants. Many surveys combine both types, and for a good reason. Closed-ended items give you breadth across a large sample. Open-ended items give you depth, and themes you never thought to ask about.

Four Errors

Every Survey Contains Error

Every survey contains error. That is not a criticism, it is a property of the method. Strong researchers do not pretend otherwise. They identify the error, minimize it, and report it transparently. Coverage error means some of the target population had no chance of being sampled. Use multiple sampling frames, or combine delivery modes. Sampling error is the random difference between a sample and the population, arising simply from studying a subset. Increase the sample size, and use probability sampling. Non-response error is subtler. Selected respondents who decline may differ systematically from those who respond. Follow up with non-responders, and offer incentives. Measurement error happens inside the respondent. They misunderstand a question, recall an event inaccurately, or answer untruthfully. Pilot-test the questions, and use validated instruments.

Systems And Ethics

Total Survey Error, and Consent

Modern survey methodology puts all of that error into a single framework. Total survey error is the combined effect of every source in a study. The reason it has to be a system is counter-intuitive. Reducing one type of error can sometimes increase another. So a well-designed survey is not error-free; it is one where total error is minimized within the available budget and time. Finally, ethics. Surveys look low-risk next to experimental or clinical research, but they are not risk-free. Obtain informed consent, and explain how the data will be stored and used. Protect confidentiality, especially on mental health, illegal behavior, or political views. Online surveys add questions about data security, third-party platforms, and the right to withdraw. And take special care with children, and with communities you do not belong to.

About Research Methods in Psychology at UPI Study

Research Methods in Psychology (Psychology 111) is a self-paced online course of 94 video lessons in 16 chapters, from the scientific method and research ethics to designs, data collection, sampling, measurement, validity, experiments, descriptive statistics and hypothesis testing. It carries a NCCRS credit recommendation for 3 semester credits.

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How psychologists know what they knowResearch Methods in Psychology teaches how psychological studies are designed, run and judged: research ethics, surveys and observation, correlational and experimental designs, sampling, reliability and validity, and the statistics used to test hypotheses. It is a core course in psychology and many social-science degrees.
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Universities that work with NCCRS

Research Methods in Psychology carries a NCCRS credit recommendation. These universities work with NCCRS; some are UPI Study's signed partners. ACE and NCCRS have over 2,100 cooperating colleges that will consider accepting credits; the final decision is with the universities.

Thomas Edison State UniversityThomas Edison State UniversitySigned partnerUniversity of the PeopleUniversity of the PeopleSigned partnerCharter Oak State CollegeCharter Oak State CollegeSigned partnerStrayer UniversityStrayer UniversitySigned partnerColumbia Southern UniversityColumbia Southern UniversitySigned partnerIndiana TechIndiana TechSigned partnerPenn StatePenn StateWorks with NCCRSSouthern New Hampshire UniversitySouthern New Hampshire UniversityWorks with NCCRSSUNYSUNYWorks with NCCRS +many more cooperating universitiesFind my college →

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FAQ

Questions students ask us

About Survey Methods in Social Research

What is the difference between a trend study, a cohort study, and a panel study?
They differ in who is surveyed at each wave. A trend study draws different samples from the same population at different times, such as a yearly national poll. A cohort study follows a group sharing a characteristic, such as people born in 1990, though the individuals surveyed can differ between waves. A panel study surveys the same individuals repeatedly, so it can track individual change but suffers from attrition.
What are the pros and cons of online, telephone, face-to-face, and mail surveys?
Each delivery mode trades cost against reach and depth. Online surveys are cheap and fast but suffer coverage bias against people with limited internet access. Telephone interviewers can clarify questions, but response rates have fallen sharply. Face-to-face surveys yield the highest response rates and deepest data at the highest cost. Mail surveys are inexpensive per respondent but slow, with low response rates unless there is follow-up.
What is a double-barreled question in a survey?
A double-barreled question asks about two issues at once, so the answer is ambiguous. For example, someone asked whether their instructors are knowledgeable and friendly cannot answer clearly if they find them knowledgeable but unfriendly. The fix is to ask one thing per question. Good wording also uses plain language, replaces vague terms like often or recently with specific ones, avoids leading phrasing, and offers balanced response options.
What are the main sources of error in survey research?
Four main sources are coverage, sampling, non-response, and measurement error. Coverage error means part of the target population had no chance of selection. Sampling error is the random difference that comes from studying a subset. Non-response error arises when people who decline differ from those who answer. Measurement error comes from misunderstanding, faulty recall, or untruthful answers. The total survey error framework treats them together, because reducing one can increase another.

About the Research Methods in Psychology course

How many college credits is Research Methods in Psychology?
Research Methods in Psychology (Psychology 111) carries a NCCRS credit recommendation for 3 semester credits. ACE and NCCRS have over 2,100 cooperating colleges that will consider accepting credits; the final decision is with the universities.
How much does Research Methods in Psychology cost and what is included?
$250, paid once, with lifetime access: all 94 video lessons, a practice quiz after each, the graded work and final exam, and an official transcript when you finish. Students who want several courses choose UPI Study PRO instead.
Which universities accept UPI Study credits?
UPI Study has signed partner agreements with universities such as Thomas Edison State University, University of the People and Charter Oak State College, and works with universities such as Penn State, SNHU and SUNY. ACE and NCCRS have over 2,100 cooperating colleges that will consider accepting credits; the final decision is with the universities. Use "Find my college" on this page to check yours.
How long does Research Methods in Psychology take?
It is self-paced with no deadlines. The 94 lessons total about 16 hours of video; most students add reading and practice time and finish in a few weeks to a few months, on their own schedule.
How are the exams done?
Quizzes and assignments are online in the course. The final exam is taken online with proctoring; a person on the UPI Study team checks assignments, usually within two days.
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